Editing Gravity wave (section)

==Generation of ocean waves by wind==
{{main|Wind wave}}
Wind waves, as their name suggests, are generated by wind transferring energy from the atmosphere to the ocean's surface, and [[Capillary wave|capillary-gravity waves]] play an essential role in this effect. There are two distinct mechanisms involved, called after their proponents, Phillips and Miles.

In the work of Phillips,<ref>{{citation | first=O. M. | last=Phillips | year=1957 | title=On the generation of waves by turbulent wind | journal=J. Fluid Mech. | volume=2 | issue=5 | pages=417–445 | doi=10.1017/S0022112057000233 | doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |bibcode = 1957JFM.....2..417P | s2cid=116675962 }}</ref> the ocean surface is imagined to be initially flat (''glassy''), and a [[turbulent]] wind blows over the surface. When a flow is turbulent, one observes a randomly fluctuating velocity field superimposed on a mean flow (contrast with a laminar flow, in which the fluid motion is ordered and smooth). The fluctuating velocity field gives rise to fluctuating [[stress (mechanics)|stress]]es (both tangential and normal) that act on the air-water interface. The normal stress, or fluctuating pressure acts as a forcing term (much like pushing a swing introduces a forcing term). If the frequency and wavenumber <math>\scriptstyle\left(\omega,k\right)</math> of this forcing term match a mode of vibration of the capillary-gravity wave (as derived above), then there is a [[resonance]], and the wave grows in amplitude. As with other resonance effects, the amplitude of this wave grows linearly with time.

The air-water interface is now endowed with a surface roughness due to the capillary-gravity waves, and a second phase of wave growth takes place. A wave established on the surface either spontaneously as described above, or in laboratory conditions, interacts with the turbulent mean flow in a manner described by Miles.<ref>{{citation | first=J. W. | last=Miles | author-link=John W. Miles | year=1957 | title=On the generation of surface waves by shear flows | journal=J. Fluid Mech. | volume=3 | issue=2 | pages=185–204 | doi=10.1017/S0022112057000567 | doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |bibcode = 1957JFM.....3..185M | s2cid=119795395 }}</ref> This is the so-called critical-layer mechanism. A [[critical layer]] forms at a height where the wave speed ''c'' equals the mean turbulent flow ''U''. As the flow is turbulent, its mean profile is logarithmic, and its second derivative is thus negative. This is precisely the condition for the mean flow to impart its energy to the interface through the critical layer. This supply of energy to the interface is destabilizing and causes the amplitude of the wave on the interface to grow in time. As in other examples of linear instability, the growth rate of the disturbance in this phase is exponential in time.

This [[Miles-Phillips mechanism|Miles–Phillips Mechanism]] process can continue until an equilibrium is reached, or until the wind stops transferring energy to the waves (i.e., blowing them along) or when they run out of ocean distance, also known as [[fetch (geography)|fetch]] length.