Editing Spirit possession (section)

==Asian traditions==

===Yahwism===
There are indications that trance-related practices might have played a role in the prophetic experiences of adherents of [[Yahwism]]. According to [[Martti Nissinen]], Yahwist prophets may have received messages from the different gods and goddesses in the [[Canaanite Religion|Yahwist Pantheon]] through a state of trance possession. This theory can be reconstructed from [[Sumerian Mythology]], a similar theology to that of Yahwism, where the standard prophetic designations in the [[Akkadian language]], muḫḫûm/muḫḫūtum (masc./fem., Old Babylonian) and maḫḫû/maḫḫūtu (masc./fem., Neo-Assyrian), are derived from the Akkadian verb maḫû "to become crazy, to go into a frenzy."<ref name="nissinen">{{cite web |last1=Nissinen |first1=Martti |title='Prophecy and Ecstasy', Ancient Prophecy: Near Eastern, Biblical, and Greek Perspectives |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25797/chapter/193398813#401699355 |website=Oxford |publisher=Oxford Academic |access-date=22 August 2023}}</ref> According to bible scholar Simon B. Parker, trance rituals may have occurred such as nudity or a less extreme alternative, a trance where the person to enter trance receives the god or spirit into their body.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=Simon B. |title="Possession Trance and Prophecy in Pre-Exilic Israel." |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1517036 |journal=Vetus Testamentum |date=4 September 1978 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=271–285 |publisher=Simon B. Parker|doi=10.1163/156853378X00518 |jstor=1517036 }}</ref>

Further according to Nissinen, the [[Hebrew Bible]], may contain evidence that trance-related practices may have been the origins of the Jewish traditions of [[Prophets in Judaism|prophetic messages]].<ref name="nissinen" /> However, these instances may have been limited, with trance instead being a way of confirming divine appointment to a leadership position.<ref name=":4" />

Nissinen also recorded that music was an essential part to these trance-ceremonies in the Ancient Near-East and so it can be reconstructed it could have been found in Yahwism.<ref name="nissinen" /> Instruments such as the tambourine, harps, lyres, and flutes may have been utilized, as those were common instruments in Ancient Israel.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Sounds of Music in Ancient Israel |url=https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/g201103/The-Sounds-of-Music-in-Ancient-Israel/ |website=Jehovah’s Witnesses}}</ref> Along with music, incense may have also been used, either as an offering,  or to be used as an [[entheogen]], or possibly as both.

[[Exorcisms]] were also common. They can be reconstructed from both Medieval Jewish texts and texts from neighboring ancient cultures that practiced exorcisms. Exorcists acting almost like shamans would do rituals to exorcise one of a "demon" or evil spirit. According to Gina Konstantopoulos, a figure named an "Āshipu" acted as an exorcist in Mesopotamia and were trained in many fields of occultism, priesthood and herbalism.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Konstantopoulos |first1=Gina |title=Demons and exorcism in ancient Mesopotamia |url=https://hcommons.org/deposits/objects/hc:33220/datastreams/CONTENT/content |publisher=Gina Konstantopoulos}}</ref> As amulets (called teraphim) were also used in Yahwism to ward off evil spirits, it may also be reconstructed that there were people in Ancient Israel who acted as exorcists or shamans who would do specific rituals to ward off evil spirits. As mentioned previously, these may have included music, incense, prayers, and trance-rituals. According to Reimund Leicht, formulae was used ward off the evil, along with ritualistic sacrifices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leicht |first1=Reimund |title=Mashbiaʿ Ani ʿAlekha: Types and Patterns of Ancient Jewish and Christian Exorcism Formulae |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40753414 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |date=4 September 2023 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=319–343 |publisher=Reimund Leicht|doi=10.1628/094457006780130466 |jstor=40753414 }}</ref>

===Buddhism===
According to the Indian medical literature and [[Vajrayana|Tantric Buddhist]] scriptures, most of the "seizers", or those that threaten the lives of young children, appear in animal form: cow, lion, fox, monkey, horse, dog, pig, cat, crow, pheasant, owl, and snake. Apart from these "nightmare shapes", the impersonation or incarnation of animals can in some circumstances also be highly beneficial, according to Michel Strickmann.{{sfnp|Strickmann|2002|p=251}}

Ch'i Chung-fu, a Chinese gynecologist writing early in the 13th century, wrote that in addition to five sorts of falling frenzy classified according to their causative factors, there were also four types of other frenzies distinguished by the sounds and movements given off by the victim during his seizure: cow, horse, pig, and dog frenzies.{{sfnp|Strickmann|2002|p=251}}

[[File:Buddha,_resisting_the_demons_of_Mara,_Wellcome_V0046085.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Buddha, resisting the demons of Mara]]
{{anchor|Māra|Mara}}
In [[Buddhism]], a ''[[Mara (demon)|māra]]'', sometimes translated as "demon", can either be a being suffering in the [[Naraka|hell realm]]{{sfnp|Sutherland|2013}} or a delusion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tibetan Buddhist Psychology and Psychotherapy|url=http://www.tibetanmedicine-edu.org/index.php/psychology-and-psychotherapy/34-tibetan-buddhist-psychology-and-psychotherapy|website=Tibetan Medicine Education center|access-date=December 12, 2019}}</ref> Before Siddhartha became [[Gautama Buddha]], He was challenged by [[Mara (demon)|Mara]], the embodiment of temptation, and overcame it.{{sfnp|Kinnard|2006}} In traditional Buddhism, four forms of ''māra'' are enumerated:{{sfnp|Buswell|Lopez|2013}}
* ''Kleśa-māra'', or '' māra'' as the embodiment of all [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|unskillful emotions]], such as greed, hate, and delusion.
* ''Mṛtyu-māra'', or ''māra'' as [[Mrtyu|death]].
* ''Skandha-māra'', or ''māra'' as [[metaphor]] for the entirety of conditioned existence. 
* ''Devaputra-māra'', the [[Deva (Buddhism)|deva]] of the sensuous realm, who tried to prevent Gautama Buddha from attaining liberation from the [[Samsara|cycle of rebirth]] on the night of the Buddha's enlightenment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lamayeshe.com/glossary/four-maras|title=Four maras|date=2019|work=Lama Yeshe Wisdom Archive|access-date=December 8, 2019}}</ref>

It is believed that a ''māra'' will depart to a different realm once it is appeased.{{sfnp|Sutherland|2013}}

===East Asia===
{{See also|East Asian religions}}
Certain sects of [[Taoism]], [[Korean shamanism]], [[Shinto]], some [[Japanese new religions|Japanese new religious movements]], and other East Asian religions feature the idea of spirit possession. Some sects feature [[Shamanism|shamans]] who supposedly become possessed; [[Mediumship|mediums]] who allegedly channel beings' supernatural power; or [[Enchanter (paranormal)|enchanters]] are said to imbue or foster spirits within objects, like [[samurai swords]].{{sfnp|Oxtoby|Amore|2010|pp=256–319}} The Hong Kong film ''Super Normal II'' (''大迷信'', 1993) shows the true famous story of a young lady in [[Taiwan]] who possesses the dead body of a married woman to live her pre-determined remaining life.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://tsasf.myweb.hinet.net/asf_5a.htm| title = 朱秀華借屍回陽記}}</ref> She is still serving in the Zhen Tian Temple in [[Yunlin County]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ztg.com.tw| title = 豐原鎮天宮全球資訊網}}</ref>

{{anchor|China}}

====China====
{{main|Chinese spirit possession}}

===== Background =====
China is a country where 73.56% of the population is defined as [[Chinese folk religion]]/unaffiliated (nonreligion). Therefore, the Chinese population's knowledge of spirit possession is not majorly obtained from religion. Instead, the concept is spread through fairy tales/folk tales and literary works of its traditional culture. In essence, the concept of soul possession has penetrated into all aspects of Chinese life, from people's superstitions, folk taboos, and funeral rituals, to various ghost-themed literary works, and has continued to spread to people's lives today.

===== Development =====
Spirit possession in China was prominent until the Communist takeover in the 1950s and most of the data gathered on this topic will be from the late 18th century. Some Chinese believe that illnesses to man is due to the possession of an evil yin spirit (kuei). These evil spirits become such when the deceased are not worshiped by the family, they have died unexpectedly, or did not follow Confucius's ideals of filial piety and ancestral reverence accordingly. These evil spirits cause unexplainable disasters, agricultural shocks and possessions. Disease is the cause of the supernatural where they do not have control over. Usually in the writings about this, the healers are the ones being described with detail, not so much the patient. Magical practices are sometimes what spirit possession is referred to as. It is very hard to distinguish between the religion, magic and local traditions. This is because many times, all three are fused together, so sometimes trying to distinguish between them is hard.

===== Shaman =====
Another type of spirit possession works through a [[shaman]], a prophet, healer and religious figure with the power to partially control spirits and communicate for them. Messages, remedies and even oracles are delivered through the shaman. This is sometimes used by people who would like to become important figures. Usually, shamans give guidance that reflects the customer's existing values.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spirit-Writing and the Development of Chinese Cults |url=https://jstor-jac.orc.scoolaid.net/stable/3712120?searchText=Chinese+spirit+possession&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DChinese%2Bspirit%2Bpossession%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A805862bf6169d3d628b6d045776b6bdb&seq=2}}</ref>

===== Yin-yang theory =====
The yin-yang theory is one of the most important bases and components of Chinese traditional culture. The yin-yang theory has penetrated into various traditional Chinese cultural things including calendar, astronomy, meteorology, Chinese medicine, martial arts, calligraphy, architecture, religion, feng shui, divination, etc. The yin-yang theory also applies to spirit possession. In general, one is considered to be "weak", when the yin and yang in the body are imbalanced, especially when the yin is on the dominant side. The spirits, which are categorized as the yin side, will then take control of these individuals with the imbalanced and yin-dominant situation more easily.
* [[Shi (personator)|Shi]] ([[Chinese ancestor veneration]])
* [[Solon people#Shamanism|Shamanism of the Solon People]] ([[Inner Mongolia]])
* [[Tangki]]

{{anchor|Japan}}

====Japan====
* [[Misaki#Spirit possession|Misaki]]

===India===
{{anchor|Ayurveda}}

====Ayurveda====
''Bhūtavidyā'', the exorcism of possessing spirits, is traditionally one of the [[Ayurveda#Eight components|eight limbs of Ayurveda]].

{{anchor|Rajasthan}}

====Rajasthan====
The concept of spirit possession exists in the culture of modern [[Rajasthan]]. Some of the spirits allegedly possessing Rajasthanis are seen as good and beneficial, while others are seen as malevolent. The good spirits are said to include murdered royalty, the underworld god [[Bhaironji]], and [[Muslim]] saints and fakirs. Bad spirits are believed to include perpetual debtors who die in debt, stillborn infants, deceased widows, and foreign tourists. The supposedly possessed individual is referred to as a ''ghorala'', or "mount". Possession, even if by a benign spirit, is regarded as undesirable, as it is seen to entail loss of self-control, and violent emotional outbursts.{{sfnp|Snodgrass|2002|pp=32–64}}

{{anchor|Tamik Nadu}}

====Tamil Nadu====
{{see also|Buta Kola}}
[[Tamil people|Tamil]] women in India are said to experience possession by ''peye'' spirits. According to tradition, these spirits overwhelmingly possess new brides, are usually identified as the ghosts of young men who died while romantically or sexually frustrated, and are ritually    exorcised. 
{{sfnp|Nabokov|1997|pp=297–316}}

{{anchor|Sri Lanka}}

====Sri Lanka====
The [[Coast Veddas]], a social group within the minority group of [[Sri Lankan Tamil people]] in [[Eastern Province, Sri Lanka]], enter trances during religious festivals in which they are regarded as being possessed by a spirit. Although they speak a dialect of [[Sri Lankan Tamil dialect|Tamil]], during trances they will sometimes use a mixed language that contains words from the [[Vedda language]].{{sfnp|Dart|1990|p=83}}


===Southeast Asia===

{{anchor|Indonesia}}

====Indonesia====
In Bali, the animist traditions of the island include a practice called ''[[sanghyang]]'', induction of voluntary possession trance states for specific purposes. Roughly similar to voluntary possession in [[Vaudon]] (Voodoo), ''sanghyang'' is considered a sacred state in which [[hyang]]s (deities) or helpful spirits temporarily inhabit the bodies of participants. The purpose of sanghyang is believed to be to cleanse people and places of evil influences and restore spiritual balance. Thus, it is often referred to as an exorcism ceremony.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} In Sulawesi, the women of the [[Bonerate people]] of [[Sulawesi]] practice a possession-trance ritual in which they smother glowing embers with their bare feet at the climax. The fact that they are not burned in the process is considered proof of the authenticity of the possession.{{sfnp|Broch|1985|pp=262–282}}

Influenced by the religion of Islam, among the several spirits in Indonesian belief are demons (''[[Shaitan|setan]]''), composed of fire, prone to anger and passion. They envy humans for their physical body, and try to gain control of it. When they assault a human, they would intrude their mind, trying to displace the human spirit. The human's mind would adapt to the passions of anger, violence, irrationality and greed, the intruding demon is composed of. The demon is believed to alter the person, giving him supernatural attributes, like strength of many men, ability to appear in more than one place, or assume the form of an animal, such as a tiger or a pig, or to kill without touching. Others become lunatics, resembling epilepsy. In extreme cases, the presence of the demon may alter the condition of the body, matching its own spiritual qualities, turning into a ''[[raksasha]]''.<ref>Woodward,&nbsp;Mark.&nbsp;Java, Indonesia and Islam.&nbsp;Deutschland,&nbsp;Springer Netherlands,&nbsp;2010. p. 88</ref>

{{anchor|Malaysia}}

====Malaysia====
Female workers in [[Malaysia]]n factories have allegedly become possessed by spirits, and factory owners generally regard it as [[mass hysteria]] and an intrusion of irrational and archaic beliefs into a modern setting.{{sfnp|Ong|1988|pp=28–42}}
Anthropologist [[Aihwa Ong]] noted that spirit possession beliefs in Malaysia were typically held by older, married women, whereas the female factory workers are typically young and unmarried. She connects this to the rapid industrialization and modernization of Malaysia. Ong argued that spirit possession is a traditional way of rebelling against authority without punishment, and suggests that it is a means of protesting the untenable working conditions and sexual harassment that the women were compelled to endure.{{sfnp|Ong|1988|pp=28–42}}