Editing Reincarnation (section)

===19th to 20th centuries===
By the 19th century the philosophers [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]<ref>Schopenhauer, A: "Parerga und Paralipomena" (Eduard Grisebach edition), On Religion, Section 177</ref> and [[Nietzsche]]<ref>Nietzsche and the Doctrine of Metempsychosis, in J. Urpeth & J. Lippitt, ''Nietzsche and the Divine'',  Manchester: Clinamen, 2000</ref> could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the [[American Transcendentalism|American Transcendentalists]] [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Walt Whitman]] and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and was adapted by [[Francis Bowen]] into ''Christian Metempsychosis''.<ref name="shirleymaclaine.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article-318 |title=Shirleymaclaine.com |publisher=Shirleymaclaine.com |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106160539/http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article-318 |archive-date=6 November 2011 }}</ref>

By the early 20th century, interest in reincarnation had been introduced into the nascent discipline of [[psychology]], largely due to the influence of [[William James]], who raised aspects of the [[philosophy of mind]], [[comparative religion]], the psychology of religious experience and the nature of empiricism.<ref>David Hammerman, Lisa Lenard, ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Reincarnation'', Penguin, p. 34. For relevant works by James, see; William James, ''Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897)'', ''The Will to Believe, Human Immortality'' (1956) Dover Publications, {{ISBN|0-486-20291-7}}, ''The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature'' (1902), {{ISBN|0-14-039034-0}}, ''Essays in Radical Empiricism'' (1912) Dover Publications 2003, {{ISBN|0-486-43094-4}}</ref> James was influential in the founding of the [[American Society for Psychical Research]] (ASPR) in [[New York City]] in 1885, three years after the British [[Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR) was inaugurated in London,<ref name="Berger">{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Arthur S. |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpa00berg |title=The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research |author2=Berger, Joyce |publisher=Paragon House Publishers |year=1991 |isbn=1-55778-043-9}}</ref> leading to systematic, critical investigation of paranormal phenomena. Famous World War II American General George Patton was a strong believer in reincarnation, believing, among other things, he was a reincarnation of the Carthaginian General Hannibal.

At this time popular awareness of the idea of reincarnation was boosted by the [[Theosophical Society]]'s dissemination of systematised and universalised Indian concepts and also by the influence of magical societies like [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|The Golden Dawn]]. Notable personalities like [[Annie Besant]], [[W. B. Yeats]] and [[Dion Fortune]] made the subject almost as [[Reincarnation in popular culture|familiar an element of the popular culture]] of the west as of the east. By 1924 the subject could be satirised in popular children's books.<ref>Richmal Crompton, ''More William'', George Newnes, London, 1924, XIII. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125-h/17125-h.htm William and the Ancient Souls] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529165615/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125-h/17125-h.htm |date=2012-05-29 }}; "The memory usually came in a flash. For instance, you might remember in a flash when you were looking at a box of matches that you had been Guy Fawkes."</ref> Humorist [[Don Marquis]] created a fictional cat named Mehitabel who claimed to be a reincarnation of Queen Cleopatra.<ref>Marquis, "Archy and Mehitabel" (1927)</ref>

[[Théodore Flournoy]] was among the first to study a claim of past-life recall in the course of his investigation of the medium [[Hélène Smith]], published in 1900, in which he defined the possibility of [[cryptomnesia]] in such accounts.<ref>Théodore Flournoy, [http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/-Des-Indes-a-la-planete-Mars-.html Des Indes à la planète Mars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201172115/http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/-Des-Indes-a-la-planete-Mars-.html |date=2009-12-01 }}, Étude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie, Éditions Alcan et Eggimann, Paris et Genève, 1900</ref>
[[Carl Gustav Jung]], like Flournoy based in Switzerland, also emulated him in his thesis based on a study of cryptomnesia in psychism. Later Jung would emphasise the importance of the persistence of memory and ego in psychological study of reincarnation: "This concept of rebirth necessarily implies the continuity of personality... (that) one is able, at least potentially, to remember that one has lived through previous existences, and that these existences were one's own...."<ref name="shirleymaclaine.com"/> [[Hypnosis]], used in [[psychoanalysis]] for retrieving forgotten memories, was eventually tried as a means of studying the phenomenon of past life recall.

More recently, many people in the West have developed an interest in and acceptance of reincarnation.<ref name=Haraldsson2006/> Many new religious movements include reincarnation among their beliefs, e.g. modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]], [[Kardecist spiritism|Spiritism]], Astara,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Astara |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/astara/ |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[Dianetics]], and [[Scientology]]. Many [[esotericism|esoteric]] philosophies also include reincarnation, e.g. [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]], [[Anthroposophy]], [[Kabbalah]], and [[Gnostic]] and [[Esoteric Christianity]] such as the works of [[Martinus Thomsen]].

Demographic survey data from 1999 to 2002 shows a significant minority of people from Europe (22%) and America (20%) believe in the existence of life before birth and after death, leading to a physical rebirth.<ref name=Haraldsson2006/><ref>David W. Moore, [https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three-four-americans-believe-paranormal.aspx Three in Four Americans Believe in Paranormal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113011455/https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three-four-americans-believe-paranormal.aspx |date=2020-01-13 }}</ref> The belief in reincarnation is particularly high in the Baltic countries, with [[Lithuania]] having the highest figure for the whole of Europe, 44%, while the lowest figure is in East Germany, 12%.<ref name=Haraldsson2006/> A quarter of U.S. Christians, including 10% of all [[born again]] Christians, embrace the idea.<ref>[http://worldmonitor.wordpress.com/2007/08/25/buddhism-china/ Buddhism China]{{dead link|date=December 2011}}</ref>

Academic psychiatrist [[Ian Stevenson]] reported that belief in reincarnation is held (with variations in details) by adherents of almost all major religions except [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. In addition, between 20 and 30 percent of persons in western countries who may be nominal Christians also believe in reincarnation.<ref name="jh">Jane Henry (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=EaIhapm-4UgC&dq=%22Parapsychology:+Research+on+Exceptional+Experiences%22+%22Jane+Henry%22&pg=PP5 Parapsychology: research on exceptional experiences] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163105/https://books.google.com/books?id=EaIhapm-4UgC&pg=PP5&lpg=PP5&dq=%22Parapsychology:+Research+on+Exceptional+Experiences%22+%22Jane+Henry%22&source=bl&ots=tReXJKfiIh&sig=IIE8o603PaUPxN2RT21gedmeoP8&hl=en&ei=k_VKSpL6HIvkNduOrJsB&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1 |date=2022-12-12 }} Routledge, p. 224.</ref> One 1999 study by Walter and Waterhouse reviewed the previous data on the level of reincarnation belief and performed a set of thirty in-depth interviews in Britain among people who did not belong to a religion advocating reincarnation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walter |first1=Tony |last2=Waterhouse |first2=Helen |title=A Very Private Belief: Reincarnation in Contemporary England |journal=Sociology of Religion |date=1999 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=187–197 |doi=10.2307/3711748 |jstor=3711748 }}</ref> The authors reported that surveys have found about one fifth to one quarter of Europeans have some level of belief in reincarnation, with similar results found in the USA. In the interviewed group, the belief in the existence of this phenomenon appeared independent of their age, or the type of religion that these people belonged to, with most being Christians. The beliefs of this group also did not appear to contain any more than usual of "new age" ideas (broadly defined) and the authors interpreted their ideas on reincarnation as "one way of tackling issues of suffering", but noted that this seemed to have little effect on their private lives.

Waterhouse also published a detailed discussion of beliefs expressed in the interviews.<ref name="Waterhouse1999">{{Cite journal |author=Waterhouse, H. |year=1999 |title=Reincarnation belief in Britain: New age orientation or mainstream option? |journal=Journal of Contemporary Religion |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=97–109 |doi=10.1080/13537909908580854}}</ref> She noted that although most people "hold their belief in reincarnation quite lightly" and were unclear on the details of their ideas, personal experiences such as past-life memories and [[near-death experience]]s had influenced most believers, although only a few had direct experience of these phenomena. Waterhouse analyzed the influences of second-hand accounts of reincarnation, writing that most of the people in the survey had heard other people's accounts of past-lives from regression hypnosis and dreams and found these fascinating, feeling that there "must be something in it" if other people were having such experiences.

Other influential contemporary figures that have written on reincarnation include [[Alice Ann Bailey]], one of the first writers to use the terms [[New Age]] and [[age of Aquarius]], [[Torkom Saraydarian]], an [[Armenian-American]] musician and religious author, Dolores Cannon, [[Atul Gawande]], [[Michael Newton (hypnotist)|Michael Newton]], [[Bruce Greyson]], [[Raymond Moody]] and [[Unity Church]] founder [[Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)|Charles Fillmore]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Unity Magazine November 1938 – Reincarnation {{!}} Truth Unity |url=https://www.truthunity.net/monthly-magazine/1938-11-unity-reincarnation |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=www.truthunity.net}}</ref> [[Neale Donald Walsch]], an American author of the series ''[[Conversations with God]]'' claims that he has reincarnated more than 600 times.<ref>{{cite web |title=Being at One: Neale Donald Walsch Interview with Gil Dekel (Part 3 of 3, paragraphs 18–19) |date=19 September 2010 |url=http://www.poeticmind.co.uk/creative-thoughts/being-at-one-neale-donald-walsch-interview-with-gil-dekel-phd-part-3-of-3/}}</ref> The Indian spiritual teacher [[Meher Baba]] who had significant following in the West taught that reincarnation followed from human desire and ceased once a person was freed from desire.<ref>[[Meher Baba|Baba, Meher]] (1967), [http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org ''Discourses''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708200229/http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org/ |date=2018-07-08 }}, Volume III, Sufism Reoriented, 1967, {{ISBN|1-880619-09-1}}, p. 96.</ref>